Did farming originate with the need for fibre NOT food?

The development of farming in prehistory is commonly believed to be driven by the domestication of plants for food, thought to have taken place in the fertile triangle of the Middle East. Plant domestication has also occurred in other areas, especially if one looks outside the traditional cereal crops. Some argue that facts do not always fit the theory, and that other causes may have driven plant domestication.

A recent article argues very cogently that the need for fibre NOT food, brought the development of cropping / farming and plant domestication.

See http://ejournal.anu.edu.au/index.php/bippa/article/viewFile/27/24 and make your own conclusions.

People turned to farming to grow fibre for clothing, and not to provide food, says the author who challenges conventional ideas about the origins of agriculture.

Ian Gilligan, a postgraduate researcher from the Australian National University, says his theory also explains why Aboriginal Australians were not generally farmers. Gilligan says they did not need fibre for clothing, so had no reason to grow fibre crops like cotton. He argues his case in the current issue of the Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association.

"Conventional thinking assumes that the transition to farming was related to people's need to find new ways of getting food," says Gilligan. "That doesn't really make sense for a number of reasons."

Gilligan says it doesn't explain why cultivating plants and domesticating animals only started 10,000 years ago in some areas of the world. He says a better explanation is climate. Cold winds, in the northern hemisphere during the last ice age when was 12-15ºC cooler than today, led hunters and gatherers to develop sophisticated forms of clothing.

This included tailored and multilayered clothes, including underclothes, to keep out the cold winds, says Gilligan. Animal hides and furs from hunted animals provided the most suitable warm clothing, he says. But once the climate warmed, humans wanted lighter and more breathable clothing. Textiles based on fibre crops such as cotton, linen and hemp and woolly animals like sheep and goats did the job. At the same time, says Gilligan, clothing became important as a form of display and decoration.

This issue has long been a consideration for those involved with agricultural science, especially in the areas of plant domestication, plant genetic conservation and related areas. The paper is a well argued thesis and does definitely pose some issues to consider. Even a few eminent agricultural scientists including Dr Lindsay Falvey [ ex Melbourne Uni Professor of Agriculture] tend to agree with the concept.

We will probably never know, but this paper certainly creates some new thinking, and opens up a range of options to reconsider.

DROUGHT

Drought is slowly but surely killing temperate Australia. What is probably the worst drought in white settlement history has been strangling the rural sector in this country for 5- 7 years. In the north, it is not that noticeable........but as food prices now inexorably rise, we will all notice the effects. However, in the north of Australia we have our scourge too........an investigation into developing northern Australia chaired by Senator Bill Heffernan.....but that is another story, still unfolding.

Aid from government to drought affected areas has been provided but the article here questions the effectiveness of the policy. But prudent farmers once again, seem to be discriminated against. Would not it be better giving the money to the farmers?

See http://www.abc.net.au/unleashed/stories/s2056551.htm

Provocative, interesting and maybe a bit off the mark in some areas, but essentially offers an alternate viewpoint......direct the $$ where it will most useful.

Prayers, cloud seeding, mystical chants.....................even visits by politicians ....all are welcome if it will bring rain!

Biofuels -will they impact on water?

Green energy, blue impacts:Biofuels aggravate water scarcity

In the biofuel discussion, water has not received the attention it deserves. It is high time it does.
Pursuing biofuels in water short countries turns green energy into a blue threat.

A recent scenario analysis by the International Water Management Institute (IWMI) indicates that biofuels will add to the strain on already stressed water resources.

Biofuel production will increase demand for land at the expense of nature.

It will also require large quantities of water, already a major constraint to agriculture in many parts of the world.

An estimated 40% of the world’s population lives in areas where water scarcity must be reckoned with. IWMI’s research under the Comprehensive Assessment of Water Mangement in Agriculture shows that at a global average, the biomass needed to produce one litre of biofuel evaporates between 1000 and 3,500 liters of water, under prevailing conversion techniques.

IWMI uses the WATERSIM model consisting of two integrated hydrological and economic modules to support its analysis. Using this model, IWMI has explored the water and land implications of increased biofuel production globally with a special focus on two countries : India and China. In India more than 60% of the cereals are irrigated. In China, more than 70%.

Almost all Indian sugarcane - the crop that India uses to produce ethanol - and about 45% of Chinese maize – China’s main biofuel crop - is irrigated. Both countries, responding to severe water shortages, initiated large projects to transfer water from water abundant to water short areas. These projects are controversial because of their costs, environmental impacts, and number of displaced people by big dams.

Charlotte de Fraiture, an IWMI scientist and lead author of the biofuels study says, “Biofuel production in China and India raises special concerns, because the crops to be used for biofuels—maize in China and sugarcane in India—would rely mainly on irrigation. “Even without increased biofuel production, water scarcity in these countries will worsen, as rising incomes and growing populations boost food demand.”

India and China have set ambitious goals for biofuel production to curb their rapidly growing appetites for fossil fuel imports.

Together, they account for almost 70pc of projected worldwide growth in oil demand between now and 2030.

Yet, the two countries are already struggling to find enough water to grow the food they need.

The survey also found, however, that at the global level, the rush to boost production of ethanol from crops like maize and sugarcane will most likely have only a modest impact on water use and food systems.

The report focuses on the many areas where water is already scarce, with special focus on China and India.

Unless other less water intensive alternatives are considered, the conclusion is that biofuels are not environmentally sustainable in India and China. Discussions on biofuel energy should put green energy into a blue context and take water issues into account.

While this may not be the same in other countries, particularly if crops are not irrigated, it is the outcome for these two countries where biofuel is being increased. India also has potential to develop other crops including Jatropha [ see this blog] that are labour intensive, but do not use valuable cropland or water.

The real issue is that energy use is likely to affect food production.

For more information see:www.scidev.net/content/opinions/eng/biofuel-crops-could-drain-developing-world-dry.cfm

www.iwmi.cgiar.org/EWMA/files/papers/Biofuels%20-%20Charlotte.pdf

Also see :Linkages between Energy and Water Management for Agriculture in Developing Countries - Conference Papers (January 2007)

[partially sourced from IWMI]

Reclaimed Water Grows Vines for Great Wines in South Australia

Reclaimed water produces the right bouquet in SA vines Australia
Monday, 1 October 2007

People may turn up their noses at the thought of using reclaimed water, but a study by the South Australian Research and Development Institute has found that it is not just an alternative source of water for crops, but may be more beneficial than mains water.

Dr Belinda Rawnsley, who led the three-year $350,000 study funded by the Grape and Wine Research Development Corporation, says the results are good news for vignerons and horticulturists looking for sustainable irrigation. "I think this is the way of the future, particularly for the viticulture industry, which is desperate for alternative water supplies," Dr Rawnsley said. Her work has focussed on a vineyard at McLaren Vale, which was established when reclaimed water first became available in the Willunga Basin region through the Willunga Basin Water Company in 1999. "This vineyard has used reclaimed water, from day one, in a trial specifically set up to compare mains and reclaimed water for irrigation of vines," she said.

Earlier and on-going studies by SARDI's Mike McCarthy have shown there is no difference in yield between vines irrigated with reclaimed or mains water. "My study was the first to look at the effect of using reclaimed water, if any, on soil biology," Dr Rawnsley said. "I fully expected to find that there would be more soil borne pathogens or diseases and higher levels of microbial activity. "However, there were actually less pathogens in the soil which is good, and there were indeed higher levels of microbial activity. "This is also a great finding because the higher levels of microbes improve nutrient transfer to the vine."

The Willunga Basin Water Company takes treated water from SA Water's Christies Beach Wastewater Treatment Plant, 10 kilometres north of the Willunga Basin, and pumps it via 70km of pipeline to more than 90 users whose properties cover more than 1500 hectares. The Christies Beach plant treats about 10,000 megalitres of wastewater a year and about a third of that is being used by the WBWC for irrigators. The remaining treated wastewater is pumped out to sea.

The WBWC will eventually have the capacity to take most of the wastewater from the plant.

This study adds to the pressure for improved use of reclaimed water for agricultural and horticultural use in many additional areas of Austraia, rather than wasting it!

In the Northern Territory it points to a definite potential for inceased reuse from a very low base.

Terra Preta soils - can the NT reach this level of improved soil carbon

Terra Preta: Black is the New Green

Carbon sequestration faces some major hurdles. Technical geosequestration methods could pump large amounts of CO2 deep underground but are still under development. On the other hand, natural methods that store carbon in living ecosystems, such as trees, may be possible in the short term but require huge swathes of land and are only as stable the ecosystems themselves. An ideal solution, however, would combine the quick fix of biological methods with the absolute potential of technical ones. Terra preta [sometimes seen as terra petra] may do just that, as a recent article in the journal Nature reveals. Soil sequestration of carbon has many proponents, incluidng a number of very experienced and knowledgeable scientists, in numerous countries. Australia has been slow to solidly examine this option, yet our soils - some of the oldest and most depleted on planet earth, could really get a kick start with higher soil carbon levels.

Amazonian Dark Earth, or "terra preta do indio", has mystified science for the last hundred years. Three times richer in nitrogen and phosphorous, and twenty times the carbon of normal soils, terra preta is the legacy of ancient Amazonians who predate Western civilization. Scientists who long debated the capacity of 'savages' to transform the virgin rainforest now generally agree that indigenous people transformed large regions of the Amazon into amazingly fertile black earth. The Amazonians' techniques remain an enigma but are believed to have used slash-and-smoulder to lock half of the carbon in burnt vegetation into a stable form of biochar instead of releasing the bulk of it into the atmosphere like typical slash-and-burn practices.

The difference between terra preta and ordinary soils is immense. A hectare of metre deep terra preta can contain 250 tonnes of carbon, as opposed to 100 tonnes in unimproved soils from similar parent material, according to Bruno Glaser, of the University of Bayreuth, Germany. To understand what this means, the difference in the carbon between these soils matches all of the vegetation on top of them. Furthermore, there is no clear limit to just how much biochar can be added to the soil.

Claims for biochar's capacity to capture carbon sound almost audacious. Johannes Lehmann, soil scientist and author of Amazonian Dark Earths: Origin, Properties, Management, believes that a strategy combining biochar with biofuels could ultimately offset 9.5 billion tons of carbon per year-an amount equal to the total current fossil fuel emissions!

Indeed, there is profit to be made in this black earth, for if green is the new black, then black could be the new green. Biofuels are touted as 'carbon neutral', but biofuels combined with biochar [ now generally referred to as agrichar] together promise to be 'carbon negative'. There are a number of competing technologies and some have fuel oil as a potential product, with agrichar the byproduct.

One technology - the Eprida technology uses agricultural waste biomass to produce hydrogen-rich bio-fuels and a new restorative high-carbon fertilizer (ECOSS) . Trials in tropical or depleted soils with ECOSS fertilizer sustainably improves soil fertility, water holding and plant yield far beyond what is possible with nitrogen fertilizers alone. The hydrogen produced from biomass can be used to make ethanol, or a Fischer-Troupsch gas-to-liquids diesel (BTL diesel), as well as the ammonia used to enrich the carbon to make ECOSS fertilizer. Ecocarbons from Australia have another system, with Dynamotive Energy Systems of Canada also in the mix.

Terra preta's full beauty appears in this closed loop. Unlike traditional sequestration rates that follow diminishing marginal returns-aquifers fill up, forests mature-practices based on terra preta see increasing returns. Terra preta doubles or even triples crop yields. More growth means more terra preta, begetting a virtuous cycle. While a global rollout of terra preta is still a long way off, it heralds yet another transformation of waste into resources.

Agricultural Carbon Wastes to Useful Industrial Carbon

New renewable industry may turn farm waste to commercially viable carbon

A pilot factory based in Gunnedah, NSW, and perhaps with a second unit in Toowoomba, Queensland, could spearhead the emergence of an industrial process able to turn farm wastes into charcoal beads, thereby providing a new source of renewable energy.

Eco-Carbons Pty Ltd's spokesman, Michael Neil, says the thrust of the process is to convert organic waste materials such as cereal grain 'seconds', husks, fruit stones, nut shells, and even straw, into carbon products suitable for industrial and domestic applications. "Our research and development programme has given us the confidence to trial carbonisation plants to produce, under controlled conditions, charcoal fuel beads for a range of applications in Australia," Mr Neil said. "The energy given off sustains the kiln itself, plus delivers surplus energy that can even be channelled into an electricity grid." Could this be a suitable application for the mountains of wasted, discarded "shells" of many agricultural products? Many have tried before, here in Australia and overseas, with the utilisation of rice husks a key issue in Asia, for example. Almost all have failed!

The plant's three-stage process involves milling, the formation of beads using natural binders, prior to churning out lightweight and highly porous carbon fuel beads. As a bonus the construction industry stands to benefit from a spin-off product, namely lightweight concrete, using these beads as an aggregrate substitute which should help reduce building costs.

Then there's the interesting possibility of providing horticultural industries with a product able to retain water and stimulate plant growth without suffering from high evaporation rates. Mr Neil says the associated benefits from the process also could see the provision of material with good insulation properties, plus improved soil properties since the end product is non-toxic. Australian soils are deficient in soil carbon, commonly in the form of organic matter, but there are soils elsewhere in the wolrd, notably the terra petra" soils of a few areas of the Amazon that do have a broadly similar carbon material in them.[ see other post]

Originally a Canadian initiative, the task now is to acquire venture capital to set up a fully operational site, with Gunnedah currently looking to be the most likely location.

* More information is available on: www.ecocarbons.com

Great Turf - Great Frontage .........Great Business!

Appearances do count but water is precious………..do YOUR bit for the environment!

Peter Harrison –office@abovecapricorn.com.au

Many businesses want their premises to look smart, neat and tidy, both inside and out. The old adage of “initial impressions count” might have been said with business in mind.

Effort and money goes into a neat, turfed street frontage at a business. In the NT, watering of the area is vital to maintain appearances, with most having some form of pop-up sprinklers. But they are often a cause of frustration.

In numerous areas, vandals or other incidents damage the sprinkler, they commonly over spray on to hard surfaces and with our intermittent power supply , suddenly the timer operates in the middle of the day, spraying customers. As well, many, if not all over irrigate or supply water in a fashion that does not provide a suitable soil moisture regime, which should be deeper watering, less frequently.

The modern solution is the Kapillary Irrigation Sub Surface System, or KISSS. Already widely used in eastern states to improve water efficiency it can be a great option here too. More information at www.kisss.net.au. This system is usually cost comparable with sprinklers, but with superior operational benefits.

· “Anytime” watering when plants need it most without interfering with business operations
· Wide area underground watering
· Extremely high water use efficiency – commonly save 50% over sprinkler use
· NO over spray on hard surfaces or roadways
· Reduced cost of irrigation, due to reduced water use and low pressure systems
· Lowered maintenance

Even without improved water use efficiencies, addressing issues of suitable species choice, adequate plant nutrition, weed management, thatch and mowing height and frequency can save you many dollars. Consider revisiting what you do in these areas; seek professional advice, do not rely on your mowing contractor – they make money by cutting more grass and selling more services. You want to reduce their costs, while maintaining or improving aesthetics.

As well as improved water use efficiency, many premises may wish to consider rainwater capture off the roof. This is a very practical option for business, as large roof areas of shed facilities used in conjunction with, for example 30 - 60KL of tank storage [above or below ground in many different forms] can provide adequate water for many on site uses, for around $5 - 7000. This water use includes toilet flushing, vehicle washdown and some irrigation. It reduces polluted stormwater flows, and improves the harbour water quality by reducing these inflows, for most stormwater ends up there. Yes…….there is a cost, but green businesses are often perceived as “good” businesses by customers.

With all of us needing to do more environmentally, these options are technically and financially feasible for the NT.

Sequestering Carbon in YOUR Soil - Are There $$ In It For Me?

Sequestering carbon in soil is not a new concept. It happens naturally, but can it be enhanced on farm and can it actually make some dollars for me, on my farm?

The NSW experience is worth examining in some detail, as a similar system could be useful in the tropics as well. There are a number of links with details on the scheme

http://abc.net.au/science/features/soilcarbon/ provides access, as well as several additional links, with more information.

Tropical regions also lose carbon, with fire the major problem. That may not be a significant issue on many horticulture, pasture and cropping areas, but it can be in native pasture areas where irregular burning occurs.

Annual horticulture will normally benefit from the additional carbon stored in soil, with superior moisture storage in the soil, plus improved nutrient retention, better soil tilth and a higher soil microbiological regime. And those characters may even add to yield and direct economic returns. The carbon can come from compost, mulch, green manure crops, plant residuals such as leaf drop and plant roots, but management must be directed to gain benefit from the carbon.

Benefits need to measured and a value attributed, but it does appear to show some promise. A note of caution though as one of the carbon trading schemes in NSW has appeared shaky.......and may cease.

We are interested in developing this system further and would welcome interaction with rural users in the tropics.

Agriculture and Environment Can Work Together to Benefit Both

International award for CSIRO sugar breakthrough
Australia Friday, 24 August 2007

Agriculture has often been seen as the enemy of the environment. Recent work in sugar cane shows that yields can be maintained while improving environment outcomes. It has been recognised that run off from predominantly sugarcane land has contributed to nutrient loads in the offshore areas, including the Barrier Reef. Work has been underway to addess this problem and CSIRO's new approach to reducing fertiliser run-off into the Great Barrier Reef has won best agriculture paper at an international conference on sugarcane.

The team of researchers, led by Dr Peter Thorburn, has developed the 'N Replacement' approach to nitrogen fertiliser management, which could have major environmental and economic benefits for sugarcane-growing regions.
"Our initial trials indicate that this approach may enable farmers to cut their nitrogen fertiliser use by an average of 30pc with very little affect on sugar yields," Dr Thorburn said. "That could translate to an estimated 80pc reduction in the amount of nitrogen that leaches out into waterways from sugarcane paddocks, which would be very good news for the Great Barrier Reef."

The International Society of Sugar Cane Technologists, representing scientists from 23 countries, presented Dr Thorburn and his co-authors with the award for best agricultural research paper at its triennial congress in Durban, South Africa earlier this month.

The winning study was titled 'Systems to Balance Production and Environmental Goals of Nitrogen Fertiliser Management' and sums up the results of three years of field trials in Queensland and NSW.

"It's a great honour to receive this award from our colleagues around the world," Dr Thorburn said. "The cooperation and advice we've received from local grower groups in northern NSW, Maryborough, Innisfail, Mulgrave, Mossman, and the Burdekin has been invaluable in shaping our ideas."

The paper also incorporates work done in cooperation with BSES Ltd on monitoring nitrogen levels in harvested cane using near infrared spectroscopy instruments (NIR) at the sugar mill to provide important information to help farmers to better manage fertiliser use in their crop.

Dr Thorburn says the N Replacement approach and NIR system are now at the 'proof of concept' stage, and more work is required before it can be rolled out across the industry.

"The Six-Easy Steps program developed by BSES Limited for soil-specific nutrient management practices in sugarcane production is currently the best technique widely available to growers, but we hope in a few years N Replacement will provide a new option for growers wanting to further reduce their nitrogen use and their environmental impact," he said.

The prize-winning research was funded by the Sugar Research and Development Corporation in partnership with CSIRO.

partially sourced: CSIRO

Kota Kinabalu Market

Even agricultural scientists go on holidays, but like many scientists…….often a sort of bus man’s holiday. Currently in Malaysia, and this post covers a local fruit market in Kota Kinabalu, on the waterfront.

It is August, late wet season. At the market you can find mangoes – similar to the late season Nam Dok Mai in shape, size and flesh texture. Few green mangoes were on sale. The green types are consumed locally in Malaysia as a fruit – similar texture to apple, as well as going into chutney, or similar prepared foods. Plenty of limes too.

Jak fruit [chempadek] are common and the flesh very sweet. Rambutans are coming into the market, but many a little bit immature. Buy and eat in a day or so. Langsat [duku] and longans are very plentiful. Lychees were not seen at all! Plus the local papaya, watermelon – red, and both orange and green fleshed rockmelons. BUT……..also some durians, but not as common as in the Malay Peninsula market areas. As almost always – durians are banned in virtually every hotel. If you have smelt them you will know why – the smell is off and it permeates the air conditioning – EVERY WHERE! But they still taste good – you either like or hate the taste. Bananas are not in massive abundance, with a modest supply of local smaller sized fruit, somewhere between lady finger and Cavendish types. Quality of the bananas is very ordinary, tending to be overripe, with little opportunity to keep for more than a day before being too ripe for ordinary ‘peel and eat” use.

Local mangosteens are abundant, but small. Did not test drive the mangosteens, but looked ok. Also available in the market are the local palm fruits from the salak palm. Have not seen a lot, but are readily bought by local buyers.

Surprisingly, not many tourists are buying the fruit which is a bit unnerving, especially when you are the only European chit chatting with the stall holders and buying the produce. The fruit is fresh………..really tasty, too, and a great option to use for a snack or even lunch. The market is a bit on the nose – worse very late in the evening – but not so in the late afternoon when most of the action occurs. I do not think much worse than any I have been to elsewhere in Asia, and better than many. Some local colour is added with the inevitable odd rat or two seen.

The local market operates daily, with most produce coming in around midday or even later, from areas outside of Kota Kinabalu, with the most active period later in the afternoon.

Good supplies of snake beans, plus bean sprouts, various Chinese green vegetables, okra, bitter gourd and kangkung are available. The kangkung is especially great to eat when chopped and quickly fried in a wok with garlic and chilli. Great stuff!! There are smaller volumes of European potatoes, sweet potato, carrot, and sweet corn. And of course – chillies………..in various shapes and sizes. Mostly small [ read HOT], although supplies of the larger less fiery types, were also readily available.

A lot of local ginger, turmeric, lemon grass is also available. Lemon grass is very thick at the base, indicative of a good quality. Much of the vegetables material comes from the east of Kota Kinabalu where the slopes rise to over 1000m and are well watered, although kangkung is grown at lower altitudes.

The area is vibrant, colorful and a great place to visit, with most stall holders keen to engage in a bit of banter, and many have a smattering of English vocabulary.

The same market [or really separate, but adjacent] also has local fresh fish and sea food sales. Many are a bit small, but local fish are readily sold.

The Hottest Chilli in the World - Officially!

For a lighter theme try hot chillies.

Most parts of the tropics grow chillies and capsicums. Often to try and claim bragging rights about the hotness of the local chillies. BUT..........word is out, do your best, but the title goes to India.

There is always controversy over the hotness of chillis. But a recent examination has finally found a hot one - hotter than the standard ones thrown up as the hotties. And it is from India, as anyone can attest - there are some hotties there!

Recently tested at over 1 million Scoville units [used to measure hotness of chillies] the chilli comes from Assam, in NE India. Called the bhut jolokia or ghost chilli in the hills of the NE Indian areas. Eating it is like dying says one of the growers of this red hot chilli. Eating one will kill you......just nibble is enough to cause watering eyes and a runny nose. The smallest morsel can add enough "bite" to almost any dish.

Development is happening in the growing areas to try and meet demand from chilli afficionidaos around the world, but the small, thumb sized chilli is hard to transport, and the plants difficult to grow, as they are considered a bit fragile .

In Nagaland in the Assam state it is used in almost every meal.........but you might have to travel there to eat it. Or should that be "just try it"!

For a lot more information see http://www.fiery-foods.com/dave/sagajolokia.asp for some great material on hot chillies.

Agroforestry Research Findings Vindicate Earlier Work on New Crops for the NT

African mahogany - high-value timber option for northern dry tropics

African mahogany could be a prime candidate for farm forestry in Australia's northern dry tropics, with dried and dressed timber potentially fetching prices around $3000 to $5500 per cubic metre, new research shows.

The findings result from a new study, African Mahogany Grown in Australia – wood quality and potential uses was launched on July 23, 2007 in Kununurra, WA, by RIRDC chairperson, Mary Boydell. Ms Boydell is visiting the Kununurra area as part of a series of field visits by the RIRDC Board to research projects in northern Australia.

"This project is an example of the contribution that we can make to Northern Australia through industry-focused R&D," Ms Boydell said. "The research will assist all those involved in growing African mahogany to maximise the value of the timber."

The research was funded by the Joint Venture Agroforestry Program, a collaborative initiative managed by the Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation, with partners Land and Water Australia and the Forest and Wood Products Research and Development Corporation. The research was conducted in the Northern Territory by researchers from the Department of Primary Industry Fisheries and Mining, in collaboration with researchers from Queensland's Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries, at two research sites near Darwin; and its findings are relevant across the dry tropics.

African mahogany is a high quality, medium-weight hardwood that has been used for furniture, boat building, joinery, veneers, and a range of other purposes. "In Australia, the estimated gross value of production for the forestry sector is over $1600 million per annum, including around $800 million from hardwood species before processing," Ms Boydell said. "Farm forests and joint ventures currently make up 11pc of plantations, with a significant increase in farm planting since 1995. "However, new industries, like farm forestry, are risky. "They have basic information needs, like the potential impacts of disease, processing requirements, market information, and profitability. "High establishment costs and long times for a return on investment make tree crops especially risky. "This why R&D to meet these information needs is important to underpin investment and industry development."

This finding supports some of the very early work conducted by myself as part of a range of work on new economic crops for northern Australia, conducted in the early 1990s. Even then, demand for high quality timber for high value uses in furniture and cabinet making indicated a strong potential for a timber crop that filled the gap, as high quality timbers from overseas sources were both increasing in prices and declining in availability. Since then, R and D has added to the knowledge of this species. BUT......ask any local resident in Darwin or even Katherine or Kununurra, they already know how good the timber is, using product from trees planted 2o- 30 years ago.

For further reading see - Economic Plants for the Northern Territory by PG Harrison published by the NT Department of Primary Industry Fisheries and Mines in 1993

partially sourced from the RIRDC media release.

Biofuel from Exhausts

Like most scientists, I am a sceptic.........with a capital S. But I am also aware of work being done on the use of algae to capture carbon dioxide, and also to produce biofuel.............so it may not be as far fetched as it seems. And it is NOT April Fool's Day either!

This is a serious news item today, 24 July here in Australia..........so watch this space! A major item on the ABC news

From Wales, a Box to Make Biofuel from Car Fumes

QUEENSFERRY, Wales -- The world's richest corporations and finest minds spend billions trying to solve the problem of carbon emissions, but three fishing buddies in North Wales believe they have cracked it.

They have developed a box which they say can be fixed underneath a car in place of the exhaust to trap the greenhouse gases blamed for global warming -- including carbon dioxide and nitrous oxide -- and emit mostly water vapour.

The captured gases can be processed to create a biofuel using genetically modified algae.
Dubbed "Greenbox", the technology developed by organic chemist Derek Palmer and engineers Ian Houston and John Jones could, they say, be used for cars, buses, lorries and eventually buildings and heavy industry, including power plants. "We've managed to develop a way to successfully capture a majority of the emissions from the dirtiest motor we could find," Palmer, who has consulted for organisations including the World Health Organisation and GlaxoSmithKline, told Reuters.

The three, who stumbled across the idea while experimenting with carbon dioxide to help boost algae growth for fish farming, have set up a company called Maes Anturio Limited, which translates from Welsh as Field Adventure.

With the backing of their local member of parliament they are now seeking extra risk capital either from government or industry: the only emissions they are not sure their box can handle are those from aviation.

Although the box the men currently use for demonstration is about the size of a bar stool, they say they can build one small enough to replace a car exhaust that will last for a full tank of petrol.

The crucial aspect of the technology is that the carbon dioxide is captured and held in a secure state, said Houston. Other carbon capture technologies are much more cumbersome or energy-intensive, for example using miles of pipeline to transport the gas. "The carbon dioxide, held in its safe, inert state, can be handled, transported and released into a controlled environment with ease and a minimal amount of energy required," Houston said at a demonstration using a diesel-powered generator at a certified UK Ministry of Transportation emissions test centre.

More than 130 tests carried out over two years at several testing centres have, the three say, yielded a capture rate between 85 and 95 percent. They showed the box to David Hansen, a Labour MP for Delyn, North Wales, who is now helping them. "Based on the information, there is a clear reduction in emissions," Hansen told Reuters. "As a result, I'm facilitating meetings with the appropriate UK government agencies, as we want to ensure that British ownership and manufacturing is maintained."

The men are also in contact with car-makers Toyota Motor Corp of Japan and General Motors Corp. of the United States. Houston said they have also received substantial offers from two unnamed Asian companies. Both Toyota and General Motors declined to comment.

SECRETS
If the system takes off, drivers with a Greenbox would replace it when they fill up their cars and it would go to a bioreactor to be emptied. Through a chemical reaction, the captured gases from the box would be fed to algae, which would then be crushed to produce a bio-oil. This extract can be converted to produce a biodiesel almost identical to normal diesel. This biodiesel can be fed back into a diesel engine, the emptied Greenbox can be affixed to the car and the cycle can begin again.

The process also yields methane gas and fertilizer, both of which can be captured separately. The algae required to capture all of Britain's auto emissions would take up around 1,000 acres (400 hectares). The three estimate that 10 facilities could be built across the UK to handle the carbon dioxide from the nearly 30 million cars on British roads.

The inventors say they have spent nearly 170,000 pounds ($348,500) over two years developing the "three distinct technologies" involved and are hoping to secure more funding for health and safety testing.

Not surprisingly, the trio won't show anyone -- not even their wives -- what's inside the box.

After every demonstration they hide its individual components in various locations across North Wales and the technology is divided into three parts, with each inventor being custodian of one section. "Our three minds hold the three keys and we can only unlock it together," said Houston.

partially sourced from Reuters

From Bananas to Paper - yes!

Clever country's banana paper plan

While the technology was developed a number of years ago, the up scaling from small, cottage industry scale to a serious larger scale option has taken a lot of time and effort, but it now seems to have overcome the issues that have held back commercialisation.

Unusually, as South Australia does not grow bananas, a local company has invested close to $2 million in advanced automation technology to manufacture paper from banana tree trunks.

Papyrus Australia has spent ten years developing its banana tree trunk (BTT) processing technology, which is able to produce a range of board and paper products. Listed on the Australian Stock Exchange since April 2005, the company has great international potential because of the wide availability and sustainability of BTT. There are thought to be more than 10 million hectares of bananas plantations worldwide, where every BTT is left to rot after the fruit is harvested.

Papyrus banana paper developer engaged the services of Australian systems integrator, Sage Automation to develop a fully automated commercial manufacturing line that could be licensed around the world. The line was commissioned in late April at Papyrus’s Lonsdale plant and is highly accurate, according to Chief Operating Officer, Grant Pigot. “The Papyrus commercial line employs state-of-the-art control and integration technology, provided by Sage. The intent of this technology is to maximise accuracy and precision available to Papyrus during the process of production trials. This will allow Papyrus to model all required modes in which field versions of the commercial line would be required to operate,” Pigot has advised in a recent media release. Papyrus has received substantial interest in its system from companies around the world, including Brazil, Venezuela, the Philippines, Vietnam, Malaysia, Bangladesh, Australia and the Solomon Islands.

With such far reaching applications likely, the commercial line has been designed to be robust, reliable, reproducible and to allow communication and error checking procedures to be conducted remotely. Managing director of Sage Automation, Andrew Downs, explained how technology was used to meet the requirements of the system. “Papyrus wanted a machine that would be highly configurable and would provide a platform for future expansion and development of the process. Another important consideration was that machines may be located in remote locations throughout the world, making ease of installation and production support a critical issue,” Downs advised. Sage selected the Rockwell Automation Control Logix integrated platform utilising Ethernet HMIs, distributed I/O and 16 Kinetix 7000 servo axes.

This system provides a single portal for remote support and will allow monitoring the production process in real time. This type of approach has been seen now in a number of world class Australian systems across various technical areas, allowing remote monitoring and high quality support in areas where availability of on site technical staff may be difficult.

Not only is the raw material for Papyrus’ paper products sustainable, the manufacturing process is much more ecologically friendly than traditional paper-making methods. Papyrus’ manufacturing technique does not require the pulping of raw material, and thus uses considerably less power, Pigot explained:“The Papyrus technology essentially ‘unwraps’ the banana tree trunk like a roll of paper. The banana tree trunk is comprised of a coarse outer layer, from which the board products are derived, and a fine, inner core, from which the paper products are produced,” Pigot said. According to Pigot the patented process reduces production costs by 60% compared to pulping methods. The Lonsdale manufacturing system will serve as the principal research and development line for ongoing product development. Papyrus plans to build additional lines for international customers within twelve months.

Maybe banana growing will even become a suitable option for sequestering carbon!

www.papyrusaustralia.com.au is the site for more information.

Northern Development in Australia - Taskforce Starts Work

Following on from the announcement by the Federal Government, the taskforce has now officially started work, with a recent meeting in Canberra.

The group will soon call for expressions of interest and ideas for developing land and water in the country's Top End. The taskforce has already commissioned work on the Ord region in Western Australia and the Northern Territory.

Taskforce chairman, NSW Liberal Senator, Bill Heffernan, says the taskforce will investigate new ways of maximising land and water use in the Ord, with a focus on strong price signals for water which will lead to water efficient infrastructure and high-value crops. He says the taskforce will urge the Northern Territory and Western Australian Governments to "come to terms with GM technology" - believing the use of genetically modified cropping in the north will be the key to its future. Both goverments have completed extensive studies on GM cotton, and indications are favourable for its use........but the respective governments have not allowed any commercial scale operations only trial plots.

Senator Heffernan acknowledged there had been some criticism of the plans for the north from the conservation movement, but said the taskforce has clearly expressed its desire to look at sustainable development options "that in no way harm mother earth". "This is all about how we deal with climate change in Australia," Senator Heffernan said. "We need to be finding practical ways to address the impact climate change is going to have on our food and fibre production in the south. "If we are going to stay at the forefront of agricultural production over the next 50 years, we have to be looking north."

Senator Heffernan said the taskforce will be looking at the "Bradfield" proposal put forward by Queensland Premier, Peter Beattie, to turn parts of the Far North East Queensland catchments inland, predominantly to secure water for mining.

David Tollner the MP from the NT is on the group, which also includes Noel Pearson.

This is very early days, but input from the north is vital, as well as input from experienced local scientists.

[partially sourced from The Land newspaper]

Will You Have To Pay For Your Own Dam Water in The NT Too?

The trend has now set in it seems to charge landowners for water they collect in farm dams, and for groundwater as well. Western Australia has introduced charges for dam water use, and South Australia is moving to charge for both groundwater and dam water rumour seems to indicate.

Will it come to this in the NT? And as is rightly noted in the article below, will large users such as mining companies also face similar charges at the same rates as farmers? Will the NT goverment charge the Power and Water Corporation for the dam water in their dams?

Farmers to pay for dam water in WA. - Friday, 29 June 2007

Farmers who spent time and money building their own dams to store water for stock and domestic uses have been told by WA Water Resources Minister, John Kobelke, that they will have to pay for the water they collect.

He said the changes would bring farmers using water from their large dams in line with those who use bore water. But, WAFarmers Water Resources spokesman, Steve Dilley, says this decision by the government is all 'smoke and mirrors'. “We are bewildered and disappointed at the Minister’s lack of understanding of the impact this will have on the average fruit and veggie grower and the family farming operations in the state,” Mr Dilley said. They will be paying, on average, from $600 to $1200 or $1800 a year, yet the Minister can exempt licence fees for more than 2,700 domestic bores which is a is a real slap in the face.

“How could any government proceed with a fee structure that makes family farms pay $1.02 to $2.40 a megalitre of water licensed, yet water utilities, big water cooperatives and mining companies only pay 14c a megalitre.

“I'm staggered that the Minister did not at least make the most obvious change and charge everyone the average cost of $2.27 per megalitre — at least that would have gone some way to making the fee structure fairer.”

New Duckweed Water Treatment System Installed at Wickham

A new duckweed barrier water treatment system was installed for WA Water Corporation at Wickham in the Pilbara in mid June 2007, with the duckweed itself to be placed on site in July.

This is part of a serious evaluation of the concept for use in warmer areas of Australia where duckweed thrives year round.

The barriers provide the ideal still water conditions for duckweed growth in sewerage lagoons where there is adequate nutrients, plus plenty of sun, for growth. The duckweed aids in the elimination of the algal growth in the effluent which currently impacts effective reuse of the effluent for irrigation.

Currently the TSS level in the pond is very high [mainly algae], and it is expected that this will fall dramatically as duckweed growth accelerates and covers the pond. Reduction in bacterial levels are also expected, along with small reductions in nutrient levels [ which are still of benefit in most agricultural water reuse situations].

The photos are of before and after installation of the barriers. These systems significantly "quiet the water" , even with very windy conditions and allow for adequate growth of duckweed. Wind at the time of these photos was around 30km/hr.

Drip Irrigation Boosts Pineapple Yields by 21% Over Conventional Sprinklers

An irrigation trial in pineapples at Yeppoon, Qld, has recorded a 21pc lift in production, using a drip irrigation system compared with a conventional overhead irrigation system.

These results, from a trial commenced in 2005 on the Steven's property near Yeppoon, were presented to growers at a field day organised by Fitzroy River and Coastal Catchments and Growcom Water for Profit Field Officer, Marcus McCormick.

Two equal sized and similar production blocks of about a quarter of a hectare each were selected to compare the yield and water efficiency benefits of drip irrigation with an overhead system.

The infield material costs of the drip line worked out at $3,516/ha compared to $1,932/ha for the solid set overhead system - so drip cost more. “However, while the in-paddock costs for the dripline were almost double that of the overhead, installation required less labour," Mr McCormick said. "And the drip system provided significant yield and profit benefits which more than made up for the expense.”

There were also remarkable differences in the volume of irrigation water used, with dripline saving about 50%. Only 0.489ML of water was applied to the drip block throughout the whole of the trial compared with 0.892ML for the overhead block. "We installed an Enviroscan to monitor soil moisture levels and this assisted the Stevens in making appropriate decisions about when to irrigate,” Mr McCormick said.

From this water, an additional 1,042 trays per ha of pineapples were harvested on the drip irrigation block. This represented a 21pc increase in production.

A cost analysis of the trial was conducted using pack-out figures supplied by the Stevens family and average market prices for the first six weeks of 2007 supplied by Tropical Pines. Based on these figures, the extra production from the drip block represented an additional 16pc in returns, after the cost increases for the in-paddock setup of the drip block had been accounted for.

Improved uniformity of fruit quality, sizing and superior growth and vigour of the pineapple plants produced from the drip block were apparent in the trial. Drip irrigation also allowed superior irrigation scheduling. “The beauty of drip irrigation is that the wind does not affect when you can irrigate," Nathan Stevens said at the field day. "At times, we had to wait for up to a month until we could irrigate with the overhead because of the wind,” The trial has attracted a great deal of interest from the pineapple industry.

The trial was the result of a collaborative partnership between the Stevens family, Tropical Pines, Fitzroy River and Coastal Catchments Inc., Growcom’s Water for Profit team, Yeppoon District Co-op., Plastro Asia Pacific, Menkens Irrigation Services and the Fitzroy Basin Association. A second stage of the trial is expected to look at the production benefits associated with using fertigation and chemigation through drip irrigation to manage plant nutrition and health.

Once again, water efficient irrigation systems do not cost.............they really do improve the bottom line while saving water.

Is Your Couch or Zoysia Declining?

Summertime Blues: Couchgrass Decline (Part I)

While damage to couch is more prominent, especially in the USA - due to the sheer preponderance of the species on fine lawn areas - damage on zoysia, and other warm season turf species is probable, both there and elsewhere in the warmer regions of the world.

In many parts of the northern Australia and areas of South Africa couchgrass (Cynodon spp.) has suffered greatly this past summer, and symptoms may persist into autumn. Several reasons or causes have been given, but one prominent reason is – and I will use the U.S. term - bermudagrass decline. The first reported description of bermudagrass decline occurred in the southeastern United States (i.e. Florida).

Under hot humid and frequent rainfall, patches would develop on the turf and quickly coelesce forming larger non-descript areas of turf loss. The root systems turn black and die back is significant. Although, environmental factors like low light, and saturated soils no doubt contributed to the decline, the pathogen Gaeumannomyces graminis var. graminis was identified as the cause.

Originally bermudagrass decline was only associated with bermudagrass. However, patch diseases caused by the same fungus, G. graminis var graminis have now been reported on most of the warm season turfgrasses. To reflect the increasing number of turfgrasses that are infected, the name has been changed to be more encompassing by calling these root diseases of warm season turfgrasses, “Root Decline of Warm- Season Turfgrasses” (Smiley,et al. 2006).

In the United States, where kikuyugrass (Penisetum clandestinum) is limited to southern California, a patch disease similar to bermudagrass decline has been reported.

[As a side-note, and one based on my opinion with no data to back it up, I wonder if some of the problems this past summer on kikuyugrass may have been due to this pathogen or one closely associated with it? - Henk Smith, Syngenta.]

[ From Syngenta, 6 June 2007]

Watch this space..............more to come as the story unfolds further. This is of particular interest to tropical north Australia!

In the USA, this disease seems to occur most often on intensively managed 3- to 6-year-old turfs, with many of the ultra-dwarf varieties prone to infection. Excessive nitrogen fertilization, potash deficiency, sharp increases in soil pH, and thatch accumulation increase turf susceptibility to attack by the causal fungus. Low maintenance bermudagrass lawns usually have little trouble. The disease is found on all bermudagrasses but is most damaging on the newer hybrid varieties.

Exceptionally low mowing heights, poor drainage, thatch accumulation, and high soil organic matter content have been linked with the occurrence of bermudagrass decline on greens and tees.

The causal fungus of bermudagrass decline is Gaeumannomyces graminis var. graminis. Related fungi, Leptosphaeria korrae and Ophiosphaerella herpotricha, have been shown to be related to the problem in other parts of the United States.

The same organism, Gaeumannomyces, is the fungus associated with take-all patch in St. Augustinegrass.

Initial symptoms of bermudagrass decline include chlorotic patches of turf 20 - 60cm in diameter. The turf thins out and may eventually be completely killed in these patches. Chlorotic leaf blades may develop next to green shoots at the margins of the diseased area. Roots of diseased bermudagrass are brown and without feeder roots and root hairs. Signs of the fungus on the root surface appear as dark brown hypal runners. The disease occurs on weakened or damaged turf which indicates that management could be the key to control.

If disease occurs, try to identify the predisposing factors and correct them through proper management practices. On golf greens, cricket wickets or other very low cut areas, simply raising the mowing height is the most effective management practice to correct the problem. Some fungicides are effective for the control of bermuda decline caused by Gaeumannomyces graminis. Since infection is thought to occur primarily in autumn, with disease progression continuing into the winter months under cool moist conditions, autumn or end of wet season applications may be the best time for fungicides to be applied for preventative purposes. The efficacy in controlling the already established disease may be disappointing.

For more information and assessment please contact us .

Organic Waste to Oil and Agrichar - Energy and Better Soil?

The Companies and Organizations Poised to Turn Garbage into Fuel, Fertilizer and a Means of Carbon Sequestration

When Desmond Radlein heard about Richard Branson and Al Gore's Virgin Earth Challenge, a contest in which the first person who can sequester one billion tons of carbon dioxide a year wins $25 million, he got out his pencil and began figuring whether or not his company was up to the task.

Radlein is on the board of directors at Dynamotive Energy Systems, an energy solutions provider based in Vancouver, British Columbia, that is one of several companies pioneering the use of pyrolysis, a process in which biomass is burned at a high temperature in the absence of oxygen. The process yields both a charcoal by-product that can be used as a fertilizer, and bio-oil, which is a mix of oxygenated hydrocarbons that can be used to generate heat or electricity.

Because the charcoal by-product, or "agrichar," does not readily break down, it could sequester for thousands of years nearly all the carbon it contains, rather than releasing it into the atmosphere as the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide. Along the way, it would boost agricultural productivity through its ability to retain nutrients and moisture. "I developed this rough back-of-the-envelope calculation of what it would require if one were to [attempt the Virgin Earth Challenge] with the agrichar concept," Radlein explains. "One would need about 7,000 plants each processing 500 tons of biomass per day, which is a large number, but it's not outside the bounds of possibility." Such facilities would produce four parts bio-oil to one part carbon sequestered, so it would rake in money as well as carbon.

An International Movement

Radlein is not alone in his belief in this technology—in early May 2007 in Terrigal, New South Wales, Australia, the newly formed International Agrichar Initiative held its first ever conference, which included 135 attendees from every corner of the globe. According to Debbie Reed, an environmental policy expert who organized the conference, keynote speaker Mike Mason of the carbon offset company Climate Care urged attendees to unify in an effort to apply for the Virgin Earth Challenge. He also encouraged them to submit their method to the United Nations's Clean Development Mechanism program, which is designed to transfer clean technology from the developed to the developing world.

Although no officials from the U.S. government attended the conference, there is a nascent stateside movement pushing for adoption of agrichar. "[Democratic Senator] Ken Salazar of Colorado is drafting a stand-alone bill on this, and he may also promote it as part of the Farm Bill," notes Reed. The Farm Bill, whose terms are decided every year, determines what agricultural initiatives can be funded by the U.S. government. Inclusion in the Farm Bill would virtually guarantee subsidies for research and application of the agrichar process.

A Technology with a (Potentially) Huge Upside

In 2100, if pyrolysis met the entire projected demand for renewable fuels, the process would sequester enough carbon (9.5 billion tons a year) to offset current fossil fuel emissions, which stand at 5.4 billion tons a year, and then some. "Even if only a third of the bioenergy in 2100 uses pyrolysis, we still would make a huge splash with this technology," remarks Johannes Lehmann, a soil biogeochemist at Cornell University and one of the organizers of the agrichar conference.

There are other perks: Increasing production of bio-oil could decrease a country's dependence on foreign oil. In the tropics, boosting soil productivity increases the number of growing seasons per year, which could help alleviate the pressure to deforest biodiversity hot spots. The new markets for agricultural crops, which would in effect become sources of fuel, could boost rural economies worldwide, just as the demand for ethanol has bolstered the price of corn.

One calculation by Robert Brown, director of the Office of Biorenewables Programs at Iowa State University, revealed that if the U.S. adopted a cap and trade program in CO2 emissions like the one already in place in the European Union, farmers in the Midwest could almost double their income by using corn stover—the leaves, stalks and cobs that remain after harvest—to fuel pyrolysis.

The use of char also promises to combat marine dead zones, like that in the Gulf of Mexico caused by nitrogen- and phosphorus-rich agricultural runoff. Char reduces the need for man-made fertilizers by helping the soil retain nutrients. In addition, it can be made out of the very same manure and sewage that would otherwise pollute the oceans.

Amazonian Origins

Agrichar is not a recent invention. Rather, it is a modern-day attempt to re-create the terra preta, or dark soils that cover some areas of the Brazilian Amazon. These soils were created over thousands of years by pre-Columbian Indians, who covered their fields with the charred remains of domestic and agricultural trash. This practice boosted the carbon content of the soils from a meager 0.5 percent to 9 percent.

"This is actually slash-and-char agriculture," Brown notes, contrasting it with the modern day slash-and-burn variety. "Instead of biomass being burnt down to a fine ash, charcoal remains, just like after a campfire." In addition to retaining nutrients, the porous charcoal helps microorganisms colonize and build up the soil. Charcoal is known for remaining stable over long periods of time, and alternating rainy and dry seasons preserve it even more. "You basically are drying out a steak," explains Danny Day, president of Eprida, a renewable energy development company based in Athens, Ga. "So you get beef jerky, which will last you for years." Even today, the Amazonian dark earths are so fertile that farmers continue to till them.

"What we're looking at is producing those kinds of charcoals in a modern pyrolysis reactor," notes Brown, who received a $1.8 million grant from the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) to attempt to recreate terra preta using corn stalks. He plans to have enough char generated by this spring to run field trials this year. By his calculations each square mile of corn farm that uses this "fiber to fertilizer" pyrolysis process can offset the emissions of 330 automobiles.

But is it Viable?

As with all new technologies, many questions about the ultimate utility of agrichar have yet to be answered. "As of now agrichar is not a uniform product," explains John Kimble, a retired USDA soil scientist. "And there's no easy way for farmers to apply it with existing equipment. They also need to know there is a large enough source of the material. Farmers are driven by profit, as is everyone, and they need to be shown that it will improve their bottom line."

Complicating debates about the costs of agrichar is the paucity of data on the subject. "No one is sure what types of biomass should be used as raw material," Kimble notes, "or exactly what production methods work best, so calculating the costs is really an exercise in speculation."

In addition, scientists are finding it hard to replicate the original terra preta soils. "The secret of the terra preta is not only applying charcoal and chicken manure—there must be something else," says Bruno Glaser, a soil scientist at Bayreuth University in Germany. Field trials in Amazonia using charcoal with compost or chicken manure find that crop yields decline after the third or fourth harvest. "If you use terra preta you have sustaining yields more or less constantly year after year," he says. "I'm skeptical about adding just a pure carbon source," says Stanley Buol, a professor emeritus from the Department of Soil Science at North Carolina State University's College of Agriculture and Life Sciences who spent 35 years studying Amazonian soils. "It will be black and look good," but will it contain enough inorganic ions, such as phosphorus and nitrogen, essential to plant growth?"

Many of the interactions between the char, the soil and the microorganisms that develop with time and lend the soil its richness and stability are still poorly understood. Glaser believes that the key to making agrichar behave like terra preta lies in the biological behavior of the original Amazonian dark earths—a difference he attributes to their age. "You would need 50 or 100 years to get a similar combination between the stable charcoal and the ingredients," he cautions. "I think [research into the biological behavior of terra preta] is where the new frontier will be," Lehmann counters. If he is right, and scientists can perfect a modern-day recipe for agrichar, then its fans will not need Richard Branson's $25 million to jump-start their initiative—the annual demand for fertilizers exceeds 150 million tons worldwide.

[from Scientific American with additional reporting by Coco Ballantyne and Christopher Mims ]
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The systems developed by Dynamotive are proposed to be installed at the Darwin Council landfill site in Darwin, assuming all agreements are met, sometime in 2008. There are more details on the web site of the council www.darwin.nt.gov.au .

What will happen to the agrichar is still unknown, but with north Australian soils very deficient in soil or sequestered carbon, there is a home for the material. See the earlier posts on this subject.

This is exciting for agriculture.........if it can be developed. BUT, even without that terra preta soil, the presence of soil carbon can help drive moisture, nutritional and biological activity in soils, all needed in Northern Territory soils, especially in the wetter regions.